Comment: eight ways Islamophobia operates Published on: 12 October 2016 Writing for The Conversation, Professor Peter Hopkins looks at how Islamophobia affects everyday life. A Muslim woman Eight ways that Islamophobia operates in everyday life , ; , , and , Immigration and national identity currently are at the forefront of the public conscience. In France, the and in the UK following the Brexit vote are dividing communities. The growing tensions mean that many ethnic and religious minority communities are increasingly experiencing in their everyday lives. In 2015, Islamophobia reportedly increased by while anti-Muslim attacks . The term Islamophobia is defined as 鈥溾��. This includes 鈥渦nfair discrimination against Muslim individuals and communities鈥� and the exclusion of Muslims from political and social affairs. But the term 鈥淚slamophobia鈥� is somewhat confusing: it supports the idea that there is and implies a 鈥渇ear鈥� of it. Some have argued for new, more accurate terms such as . Like the word itself, the phenomenon of Islamophobia is equally complex, and cannot be put neatly into a box. Here are some of the ways it affects everyday life. 1) It isn鈥檛 only experienced by Muslims It is who are targeted by Islamophobic racism. A diverse range of people from different ethnic and religious minorities also , mostly as a result of people assuming that they are Muslims. Sikhs, Hindus, other south Asians, those with African heritages and even some central and eastern European migrants are all lumped into one category. This can make insecure in public spaces, and in their everyday encounters with others. 2) It is shaped by geopolitics Experiences of Islamophobia are strongly interconnected with geopolitical events such as 9/11, the , the and the ongoing conflict in Syria. shows that experiences of shortly after such events before declining gradually. In addition, our own research has found that the reporting of such events in the mainstream media contributes to the negative stereotyping of Muslims. We interviewed young people, aged 12 to 26, who claimed that references to Muslims as 鈥渆xtremists鈥� and as a 鈥渢hreat鈥� to British ways of life in the media skew the public鈥檚 perception of Muslim communities 鈥� to challenge such negative associations. 3) It ignores the diversity of Muslim communities Islamophobia makes it appear as if 鈥渢he鈥� Muslim community lacks any internal diversity. Muslims can be of any ethnicity and have with regards to how and when they practise their religion. Muslims also have different attitudes to, and ideas about, , gender and . To lump them all into one category is to overlook the diversity of Muslim communities. 4) It鈥檚 different for men and women Women and men do not experience Islamophobia in the same way. Women are more likely , particularly if they are wearing a headscarf, hijab or burka. In fact, reported to Tell MAMA in 2015 were against women, and 75% of these victims were visibly Muslim. For Muslim men, markers of Muslimness 鈥� such as having a beard, brown skin or wearing 鈥淎sian clothes鈥� 鈥� increase the likelihood of them experiencing Islamophobia. Although men were less likely to experience Islamophobia than women, when they did, it was , including verbal abuse, physical assault and threatening behaviour. 5) It can make Muslims wary of public places Despite heavy coverage of Islamophobic , our research has found that this racism is not restricted to specific places. It occurs in schools, colleges, neighbourhoods, public spaces and at airports. Significantly, it also shapes Muslims鈥� mental maps of public spaces, and where they feel it is safe or unsafe for them to visit. Muslims are inclined to moderate their movements in public spaces and this at times feeds into and the accusation that Muslims are living . 6) Attacks vary in intensity and nature Physically aggressive forms of Islamophobia include , as well as things like by fellow passengers on public transport. There is also name-calling, taunting, or individuals being made the subject of jokes and 鈥渂anter鈥� in public. on social media sites, too, although such contexts also provide a . The responses to these different forms of Islamophobia by those who experience it are also variable. Our research found that to so-called banter and name-calling. But for others, Islamophobia may mean subtle forms of avoidance and exclusion, such as being stared at, not having someone sit next to you on the bus or experiencing a general sense of social distance. 7) Islamophobia is reproduced institutionally Government institutions can reinforce and reproduce Islamophobia through , such as the for schools. There are a number of concerns about the ways that monitor and survey students who look Muslim as a result of these policies, and how this leads to Muslim students feeling increasingly . Anti-Islamic sentiment is also experienced in the workplace 鈥� 100% of participants in a small focus group recently said that they had directly who had experienced discrimination in the workplace. Some Muslims may be reluctant to challenge such forms of discrimination as a result of what they see as and feel silenced as a result. 8) Young people build new strategies Young people have had to develop a range of strategies in order to negotiate and resist Islamophobia. Some have talked about adopting to mitigate against the harm of feeling 鈥渢argeted鈥�, avoiding certain spaces or conversations. Others, like have been more resistant and challenged Islamophobia through proactively speaking out against it 鈥� but not all have the confidence to do this. , Professor of Social Geography, ; , Lecturer, , and , Lecturer in Human Geography, This article was originally published on . Read the . 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